Language Policies of Nepal  and Language Commission

Language Policies of Nepal  and Language Commission

 Lok B.Lopchan, Ph.D.

 

Socilocultural landscape

Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-religious, and multilingual federal democratic republic. It is recognized as the oldest nation-state in South Asia (Acharya, 2021). According to the National Statistics Office (NSO, 2021), the country is home to more than 142 caste and ethnic groups, 124 languages, and ten religions. Following the adoption of a federal system, Nepal was restructured into seven provinces and 753 local levels (LLs) as outlined in the Constitution.

Nepal is home to several endangered communities, including the Raute, Kusunda, Chepang, Byasi, Tilung, and Dura, among others, each possessing unique cultural heritages that contribute to the country’s rich diversity. Occupational caste groups such as the Dalits possess significant human capital and exceptional craftsmanship. However, entrenched caste hierarchies continue to subject Dalits to systemic discrimination.

True federalism in Nepal remains incomplete without addressing the rights and inclusion of indigenous minorities and Dalits. Language and education play a central role in ensuring empowerment and social emancipation. Although the Constitution of Nepal enshrines the protection of these groups as part of their fundamental rights, there remains visible resistance at the federal, provincial, and local levels in implementing these constitutional provisions effectively.

Languages of Nepal

Population by mother tongue National Census, 2021
Mother Tongue	Total	Percentage		Mother Tongue	Total	Percentage
All Mother Tongues	29164578	100		Kulung	37912	0.13
Nepali	13084457	44.86		Angika	35952	0.12
Maithili	3222389	11.05		Majhi	32917	0.11
Bhojpuri	1820795	6.24		Sunuwar	32708	0.11
Tharu	1714091	5.88		Thami	26805	0.09
Tamang	1423075	4.88		Ganagai	26281	0.09
Bajjika	1133764	3.89		Thulung	24405	0.08
Avadhi	864276	2.96		Bangla	23774	0.08
Nepalbhasha(Newari)	863380	2.96		Ghale	23049	0.08
Magar Dhut	810315	2.78		Sampang	21597	0.07
Doteli	494864	1.7		Marwadi	21333	0.07
Urdu	413785	1.42		Dadeldhuri	21300	0.07
Yakthung/Limbu	350436	1.2		Dhimal	20583	0.07
Gurung	328074	1.12		Tajpuriya	20349	0.07
Magahi	230117	0.79		Kumal	18435	0.06
Baitadeli	152666	0.52		Khaling	16514	0.06
Rai	144512	0.5		Musalman	16252	0.06
Achhami	141444	0.48		Wambule	15285	0.05
Bantawa	138003	0.47		Bahing/Bayung	14449	0.05
Rajbanshi	130163	0.45		Yakkha	14241	0.05
Sherpa	117896	0.4		Sanskrit	13906	0.05
Khash	117511	0.4		Bhujel	13086	0.04
Bajhangi	99631	0.34		Bhote	12895	0.04
Hindi	98399	0.34		Darai	12156	0.04
Magar Kham	91753	0.31		Yamphu/Yamphe	10744	0.04
Chamling	89037	0.31		Nachhiring	9906	0.03
Ranatharu	77766	0.27		Hyolmo/Yholmo	9658	0.03
Chepang	58392	0.2		Dumi	8638	0.03
Bajureli	56486	0.19		Jumli	8338	0.03
Santhali	53677	0.18		Bote	7687	0.03
Danuwar	49992	0.17		Mewahang	7428	0.03
Darchuleli	45649	0.16		Puma	6763	0.02
Uranw/Urau	38873	0.13		Pahari	5946	0.02

 

 

Mother Tongue	Total	Percentage		Mother Tongue	Total	Percentage
Athpahariya	5580	0.02		Sadri	1347	0
Dungmali	5403	0.02		English	1323	0
Jirel	5167	0.02		Magar Kaike	1225	0
Tibetan	5053	0.02		Sonaha	1182	0
Dailekhi	4989	0.02		Hayu/Vayu	1133	0
Chum/Nubri	4284	0.01		Kisan	1004	0
Chhantyal	4282	0.01		Punjabi	871	0
Raji	4247	0.01		Dhuleli	786	0
Thakali	4220	0.01		Khamchi(Raute)	741	0
Meche	4203	0.01		Lungkhim	702	0
Koyee	4152	0.01		Lowa	624	0
Lohorung	3884	0.01		Kagate	611	0
Kewarat	3469	0.01		Waling/Walung	545	0
Dolpali	3244	0.01		Nar-Phu	428	0
Done	3100	0.01		Lhomi	413	0
Mugali	2834	0.01		Tichhurong Poike	410	0
Jero/Jerung	2817	0.01		Kurmali	397	0
Karmarong	2619	0.01		Koche	332	0
Chhintang	2564	0.01		Sindhi	291	0
Lhopa	2348	0.01		Phangduwali	247	0
Lapcha	2240	0.01		Belhare	177	0
Munda/Mudiyari	2107	0.01		Surel	174	0
Manange	2022	0.01		Malpande	161	0
Chhiling	2011	0.01		Khariya	132	0
Dura	1991	0.01		Sadhani	122	0
Tilung	1969	0.01		Hariyanwi	114	0
Sign Language	1784	0.01		Sam	106	0
Byansi	1706	0.01		Bankariya	86	0
Balkura/Baram	1539	0.01		Kusunda	23	0
Baragunwa	1536	0.01		Others	4201	0.01
				Not stated	346	0

 

 

Language Policies of  Nepal

The Constitution of Nepal affirms a strong commitment to the federalization of language and education. The Preamble itself lays the foundational principles for promoting linguistic and educational rights within a federal structure. Article 7, Clause (2), stipulates that each province shall have more than one official language in addition to Nepali, while Clause (3) assigns the Language Commission the responsibility to recommend measures for the federalization of languages at all tiers of government. Similarly, Article 31, Clause (5), guarantees the right to education in one’s mother tongue, and Clause (2) ensures the provision of compulsory and free education up to the secondary level.

In alignment with these constitutional provisions, several legislative measures have been enacted. Notably, the Local Government Operation Act, 2017, and the Compulsory and Free Education Act, 2018, were introduced by the Federal Parliament to guide governance at various levels. Building on these frameworks, Bagmati Province enacted its Official Language Act in 2023, based on recommendations provided by the Language Commission of Nepal.

At the local level, progress is also evident. According to Lopchan (2023), at least four local governments have formulated local language policies, and five others have enacted language and education acts or bylaws. These developments reflect emerging shifts in policy and legislative practices toward greater linguistic inclusion at both provincial and local levels.

Moreover, Nepal is a signatory to several key international instruments that support linguistic and educational rights. These include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples’ Convention, 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169, ratified in 2007), the Sustainable Development Goals (2016–2030), and the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022–2032), among others. These commitments further reinforce Nepal’s obligations to advance inclusive language and education policies in line with global standards.

Initiatives and Achievements of the Language Commission

As per Sub-section 6 of Article 287 of the Constitution of Nepal, the functions, duties, and powers of the Language Commission are as follows:

1. To identify and recommend the basis for determining the language of official government work.
2. To identify measures for the preservation, promotion, and development of languages.
3. To develop criteria for measuring the level of mother tongue development and its potential for use in education.
4. To conduct studies, research, and monitoring related to language.

According to Rule 3 of the Language Commission Act, 2074 (2017), the functions, duties, and powers of the Commission are as follows:

1. a) To identify the mother tongues spoken in Nepal.
2. b) To recommend to the Government of Nepal the necessary policy and institutional measures to be adopted by the federal, provincial, or local governments for the protection, promotion, and development of mother tongues spoken in Nepal.
3. c) To formulate and implement necessary programs for the preservation, promotion, and development of mother tongues and scripts spoken and used in Nepal, and to recommend such programs to the concerned authorities.
   d) To publish the history of mother tongues.
4. e) To publish books in various communities’ mother tongues and scripts to the extent possible, and to recommend the concerned authorities to publish such books for the preservation, promotion, and development of those languages and scripts.
   f) To conduct studies and research to make the use of mother tongues spoken in Nepal technology-friendly, and to recommend appropriate measures to the concerned authorities.
5. g) To prepare a roster of language experts for the national language.

 

Over the past nine years, the Language Commission has undertaken significant efforts to promote and protect linguistic diversity in Nepal. Its major initiatives and achievements can be summarized under the following key areas:

1.Official Language

Recommedations: The Commission conducted consultation meetings in all seven provinces over a five-year period to prepare a report on official languages. As a result of this extensive process, the Commission finalized the Official Language Recommendation Report and submitted it to the Prime Minister of Nepal in 2021.The recommendations were primarily based on the findings of the National Census 2021, with certain revisions. The updated report includes proposed official languages for each of the seven provinces. The province-wise recommended official languages are as follows:

Provinces	Fully Official Language	Partially official Language
Koshi	1.Maithili, 2.Yakthung/Limbu	1.Tharu, 2. Tamang, 3.Magar, 4.Batawa, 5.Urdu, 6. Rajbangsi, 7. Rai 8. Newar 9. Chamling, 10. Santhali
Madhesh	1.Maithili, 2. Bhojpuri, 3. Bajjica	1.Urdu, 2. Tharu, 3. Tamang
Bagmati	1.Tamang, 2. Nepalbhasha	1. Magar, 2. Tharu, 3. Maithili
Gandaki	1.Magar Dhut, 2. Gurung	1.Tharu, 2. Nepabhasha 3. Tamang
Lumbini	1.Tharu, 2. Awadhi, 3.Bhojpuri	1. Bhojpuri, 2. Urdu, 3. Magar 4. Maithili
Karnali	1.Khas Bhasha 2. Magar Dhut
Sudurpaschim	1.Dotyali, 2. Thru	1.Baitadeli, 2.Acchami, 3. Bajhanggi

Achievments:  Tamang and Nepalbhasha have been implemented as official languages in Bagmati Province following the enactment of the Official Language Act, 2023 by the Bagmati Provincial Assembly. Similarly, Gandaki Province has drafted its Official Language Bill, which has been tabled for approval in the Provincial Assembly. Likewise, Koshi and Madhesh Provinces have also prepared drafts of their respective official language bills, and these are currently in the process of being formalized into legislation.

2.Preservation and promotion of Languages:Documentations and Language Classes: The Commission is dedicated to preserving and revitalizing endangered languages. Our efforts include extensive documentation and the operation of language classes. Furthermore, the Commission has established a Language Laboratory. This lab was notably inaugurated with a recording of a conversation between Kamala Sen Kusunda and Hema Kusunda, capturing the unique Kusunda language. Likewise, the Commission has developed a digital dictionary encompassing 31 languages.

 

 

 

 

 

2.1       Documentaion for Language Preservation

The Language Commission has published over 152 documents related to language research, policy, and promotion. The list is presented below in the table:

S.N.	Themes	Languages	Total
1.	Phonemic Identification	Magahi, Dhuleli, Chhantyal, Jumli, Kisan Jerung, Belhare, Lungkhim, Marek Yakkha, Hayu, Surel, Byansi, Yakkha, Marfa Thakali, Kusunda, Sonaha, Walung, Serke/Sereka, Sinjali/Khash, Bote	20
3.	Develop Dictionary	Meche, Sampang, Athpahariya, Belhare, Chamling, Jerung, Lapcha, Bajjika, Pahari, Marfa Thakali, Dura, Chhantyal, Limgu, Sunuwar, Hayu	15
4.	Corpus Collection	Jerung, Rajbanshi, Suwa/Kagate, Uranw(Kudukh), Lungkhim, Lohorung, Sherpa, Bhojpuri, Bote, Magahi, Surel, Hayu, Thami, Darai, Dura, Lowa/Lhopa, Raute, Mugal/Mugali, Raji. Lhomi, Lapcha, Chamling, Puma	23
5.	History of a language	Urau, Kumal, Tilung, Belhare, Rajbanshi, Kagate/Seuwa, Kisan, Lohorung, Sunuwar, Kulung, Sonaha, Tajpuriya, Yamphu, Yakkha, Sherpa, Koyee, Bote, Bhojpuri, Bajjika, Magahi, Done, Gopali, Jirel, Lhomo, Dura, Lhomi. Darai, Gurung, Kusunda, Kaike, Rana Tharu, Magar (Kham), Lapcha, Hayu, Magar Dhut, Majhi, Raute, Jumli, Mewahang	39
6.	Grammar  Writing	Kagate/Seuwa, Wambule, Kumal, Lungkhim, Done, Dura, Marfa Thakali, Bhot, Jumli/Khash, Raji, Doteli, RanaTharu, Meche, Magar Dhut, Bajjika, Urau/Kudukh, Chhateli, Kewarat and Raute	19
7.	Develop Integrated  Material in Khash Language	Linguistic History,  Phoneme identification,  Dictinary and and Grammar	1
8.	Develop Documentry	Kusunda, Tilung	2
		Total	155

 

2.2 Language Classes for revitalization of endangered Languages

The Commission has successfully conducted community-based language classes in six different languages to date. These initiatives have yielded particularly promising results in the case of Kusunda, Dura, and Baram—languages that were on the verge of extinction. At the outset, Dura had no known fluent speakers, Kusunda had only one, and Baram had just three speakers.

Following the completion of the language classes, the number of speakers in each of these languages has increased significantly. Each now has more than twelve speakers actively using the language. Furthermore, these languages have been introduced as subjects in primary education, specifically in classes 1 to 3, marking a significant step toward revitalization and intergenerational transmission.

S.No.	Province	Language	District	Local Level	Language facilitator	Remarks
1.	Koshi	Tilung	Khotang	Halesi Tuwachung Mucinipality	Tulasi Kumar Rai, Gyasher Rai, Rojchandar Rai and Tulasi Khambu	Initiation of Third Phase Classes with developed textbooks.
2.	Koshi	Lungkhim	Ilam	Suryodaya Mucinicipality	Arun Kumar Rai and Janga Bahadur Rai	Initiation of first phase classes with developed textbooks.
3.	Gandaki	Dura	Lamjung	Sudarbazaar Municipality	Kamala Dura and Muktinath Ghimire	Initiation of Second Phase Classes with developed textbooks.
4.	Gandaki	Bara	Gorkha	Barpak Sulikot Rural Municipality	Ran Bahadur Baram and Prem Baramu	Initiation of Third Phase Classes with developed textbooks.
5.	Lumbini	Kusunda	Dang	Ghorahi Sub Metropolitan City	Kamala Kusunda Urmila Kusunda Udaya Ale Magar	Initiation of Forth Phase Classes with developed text books.
6.	Bagmati	Surel	Dolakha	Gaurishangkar Rural Municipatliy	Ramesh Surel	Initiated for fist phase class with developed textbook.

 

3.Mother Tongue Education

3.1 Research and recommendations

The Commission has conducted comprehensive studies on the feasibility of using mother tongues in education across 24 local levels. Based on the findings, the Commission has recommended to the government the implementation of mother tongue-based education in the respective regions. The languages identified for this initiative are as follows:

S.N.	District	Local levels	Lang	S.N.	District	Local level	Language
1	Panchthar	Phidim Municipality	Limbu	2	Solukhumbu	Solu Dudhkunda Municipality	Sherpa
3	Kavrepalanchwok	Temal Rural Municipality	Tamang	4	Makawanpur	Raksing Rural Municipality	Chepang
5	Lamjung	Kwoholasothar Rural Municipality	Gurung	6	Kanchanpr	Laljhadi Rural Municipality	Rana Tharu
7	Kapilvastu	Suddhodhan Rural Municipality	Awadhi	8	Kathmandu	Kirtipur Municipality	Nepalbhasa (Newari)
9	Dhanusha	Mithila Bihari Municipality	Maithili	10	Surkhet	Chaukune Rural Municipality	Magar
11	Palpa	Nisdi Rural Municipality	Magar	12	Dang	Rapti Rural Municipality	Deukhuriya Tharu
13	Kapilvastu	Mayadevi Rural Municipality	Urdu	14	Kavrepalanchwok	Panchkhal Municipality	Done
15	Gorkha	Gorkha Municipality	Kumal	16	Bara	Parwanipur Rural Municipality	Bhojpuri
17	Dolakha	Kalinchwok Rural Municipality	Thami	18	Bhojpur	Hatuwagadhi Rural Municipality	Bantaba
19	Sunsari	Gadhi Rural Municipality	Urau	20	Doti	Aadarsha Rural Municipality	Doteli
21	Kavrepalanchwok	Khanikhola Rural Municipality	Tamang	22	Kaverpalanchok	Dhulikhel Rural Municipalit	Nepalbhasha
23	Okhaldhunga	Khijidemba Rural Municipality	Sunuwar	24	Sarlahi	Ramnagar Rural Municipality	Magahi

 

3.1Multilingual Education Initiatives in Nepal

The Department of Education implemented a Multilingual Education (MLE) Pilot Program from 2007 to 2009 in six districts, covering eight native languages across eight schools. This initiative aimed to promote inclusive and culturally responsive education.Similarly, the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) has developed curricula and textbooks in over 31 mother tongues, reflecting Nepal’s linguistic diversity.

In collaboration with Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) Nepal, the Language Commission has also implemented Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) programs in two local levels, incorporating three schools from each, using Tamang and Limbu as the medium of instruction.In addition, the Commission has facilitated the teaching of Tamang language as a subject in 14 local levels, reaching over 200 schools within Bagmati Province. It has also supported the development of Thami language textbooks for Grades 1 to 3 for Kalinchok Rural Municipality.

4.Sociolinguistic Survey and others

The Commission, in collaboration with the Central Department of Linguistics at Tribhuvan University, Nepal, has completed sociolinguistic studies of 23 languages. In addition to these studies, the Commission has undertaken research in several thematic areas, including second language education, scripts used in the languages of Nepal, classical languages and their interrelations, sign language, and other related topics. The details of the sociolinguistic studies conducted are as follows:

S.No.	Language	Study Site	S.N.	language	Study site
1	Marek Yakkha	Dhankuta	2	Gyalsumdo	Manang
3	Nawa Sherpa	Sankhuwasabha	4	Whalung	Taplejung
5	Thudam	Sankhuwasabha	6	Lungkhi	Bhojpur and Illam
7	Muga Rai (Mugali)	Dhankuta	8	Mugom	Mugu
9	Hyolmo	Ramechhap, Sindhupalchwok, Kathmandu	10	Lhomi	Sankhuwasabha
11	Bahing	Okhaldhunga, Salyan, Kathmandu	12	Dailakhi	Kailali, Kanchanpur
13	Muslim (Miy	Gorkha, Tanahun, Kaski, Syanga	14	Pahar	Kavrepalanchwok, Sindhupalchwok, Lalitpur
15	Dolpo	Dolpa	16	Manange	Manang
17	Bankariy	Makawanpur	18	Poike
19	Marwadi	Parsa, Biratnagar, Kathmandu	20	Serke	Mustang, Kaski
21	Kurmali	Jhapa	22	Kuke (Kutan)	Gorkha
12	Nubri	Gorkha

 

5. Publications of the Language Commission

The Language Commission has published various documents related to language research, policy, and promotion. These publications have been made accessible through the Commission’s official website. A selection of the published documents is presented in the table below:

S.No.	Description	Name / Language	S.No.	Description	Name / Language
1.	A collection of summary reports on the feasibility of using mother tongue in education	Tamang, Chepang, Rana Tharu, Avadhi, Sherpa, Limbu, Done, Magar, Thami, Uraun, Doteli, Kumal, Gurung, Magar Kaike, Bhojpuri, Bantawa, Urdu, Tharu.	2.	Research Methodology	Linguistic Documentation Research Methodology
3.	Folklore Collection [On behalf of Indigenous Languages ​​(2022-2032) Special Issue]	Kulung, Gangai, Santhali, Chamling, Lhomi, Wamgule, Thulung, Magahi, Bote, Bajjika, Gopali, Jirel, Thami, Lholmo, Sunuwar, Majhi, Hayu, Balkura/Baram, Bhujel, Darai, Thakali, Chhantyal, Athar Magar, Bahra Magar/Dhut, Magar Kaike, Raji, Rana Tharu	4.	Prepare Zingles with archieves and audio, audiovisual materials	Nepali, Nepalbhasha (Newari), Maithili, Avadi, Sherpa, Limbu, Tamang, Magar Bantawa, Bhojpuri, Magar Kaike, Dura, Kusunda, Gurung, Dagaura Tharu, Doteli, Baitadeli, Bote, Raji, Surel, Tilung .
5.	Textmaterials for Language Classes	Balkura/Baram, Tilung, Kusunda, Dura and Lungkhim	6.	Source Material	Limbu Language Social Studies Class 1
7.	Language Journal	Journal 2078, Journal 2079, Jornal 2080	8.	Dictionaries	Athpahariya-Nepali Dictionary, Limbu–Nepali Dictionary, Dura–Nepali Dictionary,  Dura–Nepali Dictionary (Published with the financial support of Dura Sewa Samaj), Marfa Thakali-Nepali Dictionary (Published with the financial support of Marfa Thakali Sewa Sadan, Pokhara)
9.	Grammar	Raji, Dura, Marfa Thakali	10.	Study of Nepali Scripts	Study of Nepalese scripts (Lichchhavi, Uttar Lichchhavi and Nepal scripts)
11.	History of Languages	History of the Bajjika Language, (Published with the financial support of Ramnagar Rural Municipality, Sarlahi)

 

6.Endangered Languages of Nepal

The Commission has conducted language classes for the languages that are on the verge of extinction. Such languages include Kusunda, Baram, Tilung, Surel and Lungkhim. In particular, the Kusunda language that used to have only one speaker appears to have increased the number of its speakers to more than twelve, as a result of this initiative. Besides, the Commission has prepared digital dictionaries in 30 languages and developed language corpora in 31 languages with digital archives. And, it has also established a language lab and archive in Nepal. Further, the Department of Science and Engineering at Kathmandu University has developed machine translation system to convert Tamang into Nepali (Bal, 2012). However, more than 23 endangered languages with a small number of speakers have been facing endangerment and are on the verge of extinction in Nepal. The endangered language profile is given follow:

 

S.N.	Language	Population	Partially speakers	Full speakers	S.N.	Language	Population	Paritlially speakers	full speaker
1	Lungkhim	–	702	2	2	Tilung	–	1969	3
3	Bote	11228	7687	–	4	Hayu	3069	1133	–
5.	Surel	318	174	1	6	Dura	5581	1991	0
7	Baram	7859	1539	3	8	Kusunda	253	23	1
9	Raute	566	74	–	10	Raji	5125	4247	–

 

7.Language Commission’s Initiatives in the Context of the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022–2032)

The Language Commission has been actively conducting various programs in alignment with the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022–2032). As part of its initial efforts, the Commission launched language classes in several endangered languages, including Kusunda, Tilung, Baram, Lungkhim, Dura, and Surel.In addition, the Commission has collected folklore from 27 indigenous languages and published a dedicated book to commemorate and support the objectives of IDIL (2022–2032).

To further institutionalize the IDIL initiative in Nepal, the Commission formed a task force to draft the national IDIL Action Plan, under the leadership of Mr. Ram Bahadur Thapa Magar, Chairperson of the Indigenous Nationalities Commission. After finalizing the draft, the Action Plan was submitted to the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation. Following the Ministry’s request, the Language Commission reviewed the plan, incorporating feedback gathered through stakeholder consultations conducted over the past year, and then formally resubmitted it to the Ministry for consideration.

Although two years of the Decade have already passed, the Action Plan is still awaiting final approval from the government. With only eight years remaining, timely endorsement and implementation are critical to achieving the goals of the Decade and safeguarding Nepal’s indigenous linguistic heritage.

Challenges in Implementing Language Policy in Nepal

Before the restoration of democracy in 1990, Nepal pursued a monolingual language policy that prioritized the Nepali language (Awasthi, 2004; Kandel, 2014; Phyak, 2016; Pradhan, 2018; Lopchan, 2019). However, the Constitution of 2015 reflects a significant shift, acknowledging linguistic diversity and promoting inclusivity in education (Nembang, 2021). As Gellner (2007) notes, state policies often coexist with resistance, and such resistance has been evident in the implementation of language policies in Nepal.

Despite constitutional provisions, Nepali and English continue to dominate the education system, marginalizing the country’s indigenous and local languages (Rai, 2010). Moreover, traditional mindsets and stereotyping remain influential, even within the federal governance structure (Bhatta, 2009). The following are key challenges in this context:

1. Shifting the language: In recent times, many native speakers have begun shifting from their mother tongues to the dominant Nepali language, particularly within the family setting. Instead of communicating with their children in their native language, parents increasingly use Nepali. This trend has led to a significant language shift, resulting in a decline in language loyalty across various ethnic communities.

b.Stereotyped Mindsets::Nepal has a long history of privileging the Nepali language as the sole official language and primary medium of instruction. Post-colonial ideologies continue to shape language policies and practices, often reinforcing linguistic hierarchies (Kangas, 2000; Phillipson, 2009).

1. Policy-Practice Gap:There is a significant disconnect between existing language policies and their implementation. Although supportive policies exist on paper, their practical application remains weak and inconsistent.
2. Lack of Foundational Infrastructure:Legal, institutional, structural, and procedural mechanisms necessary for the effective management of linguistic diversity are either inadequate or absent.
3. Market-Driven Language Dominance:English has gained overwhelming dominance in Nepal’s education sector due to global market forces, often at the expense of indigenous languages.
4. Institutional Resistance:Governments at all levels federal, provincial, and localoften display apathy or reluctance towards the promotion and preservation of the languages spoken within their jurisdictions.
5. Low Priority:Language issues are given minimal attention across sectors and government levels, reflecting a lack of political and administrative will.
6. Budgetary Neglect:Many annual plans and budgets at all government levels lack dedicated programs and funding for language development and language education, a situation often described as the “zero program and budget syndrome.”
7. i) International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022–2032) Action Plan
   The Action Plan for the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022–2032) is currently under review and awaiting approval by the Government of Nepal. However, the approval process has been delayed and is behind the originally stipulated timeline.

The Way Forward

Implementing federal language policies in Nepal is a complex and challenging task. As the country navigates the federalization of language and education, it stands at a pivotal moment. The following strategic recommendations outline possible ways forward to effectively implement language federalism in Nepal:

1. Intergenerational Transmission:It is essential to make the transmission of the mother tongue to the next generation a shared responsibility and, where appropriate, a compulsory practice for all guardians. When parents and caregivers consistently communicate with their children in their native language, the continuity and survival of that language are significantly strengthened.

b.Transforming Mindsets:A fundamental shift in prevailing attitudes and behaviors is necessary at both policy and implementation levels. Reorientation, awareness-raising, and capacity-building initiatives across all tiers of government are essential to facilitate this transformation.

1. Strengthening Legal Frameworks:There is a need to amend existing constitutional provisions and introduce new legal instruments that explicitly support linguistic diversity, the rights of language communities, and the promotion of mother tongue education.
2. Establishing Structural Mechanisms: Robust structural arrangements must be developed to govern and manage language-related matters effectively. Examples include establishing:

• A Language Section within the Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Civil Aviation;
• A Mother Tongue Education Division within the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST);
• Provincial branches of the Language Commission to ensure localized support and coordination.

1. Empowering and Mobilizing Community Organizations:Community-based organizations play a crucial role in the preservation and revitalization of endangered and extinct languages. Targeted efforts to enhance their capacity and mobilize them can yield impactful, grassroots-level outcomes.
2. Ensuring Government Accountability:Governments at all levels—federal, provincial, and local—must be held accountable for preserving and promoting linguistic diversity. This includes integrating language-related programs into their annual plans and ensuring adequate budget allocations.

f.Promoting Research, Innovation, and Advocacy:Comprehensive research on local languages must be conducted across all levels of government. Additionally, advocacy initiatives can raise awareness and mobilize public and institutional support for multilingual education and language preservation.

1. Declaring Distinct, Safeguarded, and Autonomous Language Areas:
   Designating specific geographic or cultural zones as protected or autonomous language areas can significantly contribute to the revitalization and sustainability of languages that are on the brink of extinction. Such declarations would recognize and empower linguistic communities in meaningful ways.
2. i) International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022–2032) Action Plan
   First and foremost, all relevant stakeholders should take the initiative to facilitate the approval of the Action Plan by the Government of Nepal. If approval through regular channels is not feasible, the Commission should formally submit the plan to the Prime Minister, invoking the constitutional rights related to language protection and promotion to ensure its implementation.Once the plan is approved, the Commission should publish it and issue official directives to all levels of government—federal, provincial, and local—urging them to implement the Action Plan effectively.

Conclusion: Language and culture as Foundations of Nation-Building

Language and culture serve as the lifeblood of a nation and act as vital veins in the process of strong nation-building. A community cannot truly thrive without the protection and promotion of its native languages, as language is the primary vehicle for transmitting culture. It symbolizes identity and serves as the gateway for passing down indigenous knowledge, skills, and technologies. Therefore, mother tongues are crucial for preserving the sovereignty, dignity, and heritage of every ethnic group and, by extension, all of humanity. In this context, Nepal must take meaningful strides to ensure equal space, respect, and recognition for all languages across all tiers of government.

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